Seasonal climatic variations coupled with climate change increasingly pose a major challenge to agricultural production and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. While coffee farmers in Vietnam, and globally, continue to adapt, the effectiveness of drought mitigation strategies is largely unknown. An improved understanding of the effectiveness and uptake of drought mitigation strategies is critical to ensure effective strategies are developed and utilized. Here, we assess the impacts of drought on yield and farm profit, as well as the effectiveness of irrigation and mulching as drought mitigation strategies across four major robusta coffee-producing provinces in Vietnam.
Our analysis reveals that surveyed farmers rely only on mulching and irrigation to cope with drought. Mulching is a practice consisting of spreading a layer of organic materials (i.e. pruned branches and leaves from coffee trees or other trees) on top of the soil around the plant stumps to conserve soil moisture and improve soil conditions. Irrigation and mulching have allowed coffee producers to alleviate the impacts of drought across the study provinces, with the majority achieving positive returns in drought years, mostly because of the availability and affordability of water for irrigation.
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To cope with drought, it was expected that the chances of adopting mulching across the study provinces would increase for one unit increase in the perceived drought impact level or for farmers with more experience. The opposite, however, was found among the surveyed farmers in three out of four study provinces (Table 6 and S2). Several factors can explain such results including the frequency of drought events as perceived by farmers and the resulting yield reductions, the availability and affordability of water for irrigation, as well as the affordability of agrochemicals compared to other coffee-producing countries.
Given this, farmers might not find it urgent to adopt water conservation strategies. As drought events are expected to be recurrent, and likely more severe (IPCC 2014b) there is a need to increase farmer’s awareness of the availability of water for irrigation under the changing climate and help prepare for better drought management. The reliance on water resources (groundwater and river flows) to achieve high yields (Marsh, 2007, Haggar and Schepp, 2012) could be detrimental to the sustainability of the whole farming system during prolonged drought events in the study provinces.
His room, a proper human room although a little too small, lay peacefully between its four familiar walls. A collection of textile samples lay spread out on the table – Samsa was a travelling salesman – and above it there hung a picture that he had recently cut out of an illustrated magazine and housed in a nice, gilded frame.
One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin. He lay on his armour-like back, and if he lifted his head a little he could see his brown belly, slightly domed and divided by arches into stiff sections. The bedding was hardly able to cover it and seemed ready to slide off any moment. His many legs, pitifully thin compared with the size of the rest of him, waved about helplessly as he looked. “What’s happened to me? ” he thought. It wasn’t a dream.
Outrageous conditions require more liquid and electrolytes.
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It is a paradisematic country, in which roasted parts of sentences fly into your mouth. One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin. He lay on his armour-like back, and if he lifted his head a little he could see his brown belly, slightly domed and divided by arches into stiff sections. The bedding was hardly able to cover it and seemed ready to slide off any moment.
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It showed a lady fitted out with a fur hat and fur boa who sat upright, raising a heavy fur muff that covered the whole of her lower arm towards the viewer. Gregor then turned to look out the window at the dull weather. Drops of rain could be heard hitting the pane, which made him feel quite sad.
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